Physical home-learning environments of traditional and non-traditional students during the COVID pandemic: exploring the impact of learning space on students’ motivation, stress and well-being

Smart Learning Environments

Table 9 Stress, well-being, and motivation scores by university

	UWK		JKU		t (df), p	Cohen’s d
	n	M (SD)	n	M (SD)	t (df), p	Cohen’s d
WHO-5 well-being	254	14.99 (5.46)	96	12.44 (5.51)	3.88 (169.7), < .001**	0.47
PSQ overall	256	37.23 (21.56)	96	48.87 (20.42)	− 4.67 (179.4), < .001**	− 0.55
Worry	254	28.44 (22.37)	95	49.09 (28.70)	− 6.33 (138.9), < .001**	− 0 .85
Tension	254	37.78 (25.68)	95	57.16 (25.19)	− 3.08 (171.6), .002**	− 0.37
Joy	255	64.10 (24.14)	95	52.49 (21.80)	4.30 (185.2), < .001**	0.49
Demand	254	46.94 (25.46)	95	51.72 (23.33)	− 1.66 (182.9), .099	− .19
LEIMO motivation	249	3.99 (.76)	95	3.69 (0.82)	3.10 (159.3), .002**	0.39

Rating scales for the instruments: WHO-5: (0) at no time, (1) some of the time, (2) less than half the time, (3) more than half the time, (4) most of the time, (5) all of the time; PSQ: (1) almost never, (2) sometimes, (3) often, (4) usually; LEIMO: (1) strongly disagree, (2) rather disagree, (3) partly agree (4) rather agree, (5) strongly agree (calculation of mean scores based on the 80% rule)
**p ≤ .01; *p ≤ .05