Table 1 Positive outcomes of using captions/subtitles and translation in education

Manual

 Captions

Bridging listening and reading comprehension (Garza, 1991)

Listening comprehension (Li, 2013; Liyanagunawardena, 2021)

Content prediction (van der Zee et al., 2017)

Content concentration (Kruger et al., 2017)

Vocabulary and Learning comprehension (Hsieh, 2019)

Learning outcome and Cognitive load (Cao et al., 2019)

 Subtitles

Content comprehension (Danan, 2004)

Listening comprehension (Alabsi, 2020)

Learners feel comfortable while watching videos (Guillory, 1998)

Cognitive load (Kruger et al., 2013)

Immersion (Kruger et al., 2017)

Visual attention, Cognitive load, and Comprehension (Liao et al., 2020)

Automatic

 Auto-captions (ASR)

Listening comprehension and Learning concentration (Shadiev et al., 2015)

Learning performance (Chan et al., 2020; Kuo et al., 2012)

Visual attention (Huang et al., 2014)

English pronunciation (Wang & Young, 2014)

 Auto-translation (NMT)

Speaking and Writing comprehension and performance (Briggs, 2018; Niño, 2020)

Writing performance (Lee, 2019)

Reading comprehension (Fuji, 1999; Castilho & Arenas, 2018)