Direct and indirect instruction in educational robotics: a comparative study of task performance per cognitive level and student perception

Smart Learning Environments

Table 7 Independent samples t-test results regarding groups

Concept	Group	N	Mean	Std. dev	t	df	p	Mean difference	Std0. error difference
Collaboration	GDI	50	7.63	1.42	− 0.793	97	0.430	− 0.227	0.287
Collaboration	GII	50	7.86	1.43	− 0.793	97	0.430	− 0.227	0.287
STEM knowledge	GDI	50	4.92	1.14	− 5.673	82.439	0.000*	− 1.720	0.303
STEM knowledge	GII	50	6.64	1.82	− 5.673	82.439	0.000*	− 1.720	0.303
Self-confidence	GDI	50	6.08	1.41	− 6.873	78.974	0.000*	− 2.720	0.396
Self-confidence	GII	50	8.80	2.42	− 6.873	78.974	0.000*	− 2.720	0.396
Enjoyment	GDI	50	4.88	1.22	− 3.748	67.023	0.000*	− 1.620	0.432
Enjoyment	GII	50	6.50	2.80	− 3.748	67.023	0.000*	− 1.620	0.432