Conceptualizing is a process of organizing understanding to establish ownership over a topic so that the knowledge can be used to meet a range of objectives such as describing and explaining or arguing towards a viewpoint. It is distinctive, reflecting the individual’s knowledge, and is structured and open to discussion. This does not imply the conceptualization is entirely consistent and adequate to meet requirements, but the owner believes it to be consistent with current/previous knowledge (else it would be amended) and that it is fit for purpose while recognizing that discussion and problem-solving exercises could show deficiencies. That is part of the ongoing learning process and the conceptual structure if given an adequate representation is a useful framework for such amendment and exploitation.
There are several types of knowledge mapping each directed to its particular objectives and using diagrammatic methods to show the connections between elements of the structure. For example Mindmapping in which the aim is to generate associated ideas around a central concept or theme. The node-arc visual links tend to have a radial organization and images and notes can be attached. The focus is on associated meaning provided by the individual and setting out their mental constructs. Therefore, Mindmapping is useful for generating ideas, creating aide-memoirs and brainstorming. On the other hand, the important contributions made to mapping by Novak and his team takes a different approach in building knowledge systems (Novak [2002]; Novak and Wandersee [1991]; O’Donnell et al. [2002]). This was influenced by Ausubel’s views on meaningful learning (Ausubel [1968]) and identifies propositions that link two or more concepts to form a “unit of meaning” which is identified by the link name. In construction, it is useful if the concepts are arranged in hierarchical fashion within the knowledge context being considered, and cross-links and notes can be added to give clarity and show wider associations. The visual mappings may be large but parts can be sectioned to help the navigation of the maps. Overall, the aim is to place new perspectives on previous knowledge (hence meaningful learning) and the methodology has been, and still is influential, particularly in lesson design and teaching in school science education.
The focus of this paper is the macro–micro study of educational material presented to students, and the ways this can be comprehended and understood through attention to its functional structure. The analysis following Text Charting under typical section episodes of Description, Explanation, Exposition and Argumentation, results in a list of rhetorical predicate links which themselves need to be linked to create a conceptual map. This process needs some reflection to ensure the mapping, through the visual arrangement of its nodes/arcs, assists navigation and also stimulates exploitation, e.g. by considering implications, solving problems, and linking to further work. The conceptual map has to repay, and be seen to repay, the effort of its construction in the achievement and expansion of learning objectives. Before considering examples the schematic (Figure 6) will be a useful guide to the process.
Following this scheme the conceptual map of the Hot Air Balloon can be produced (see Figure 7). The initial mapping (which might in part be constructed in the previous predicate analysis stage) is likely to encourage reflection and result in a more compact version of the content with the visual arrangement giving clearer navigation.
It is often useful when reflecting on a conceptual map and exploiting its implications, to produce a text summary narrative which gives a connectivity to the navigation. For example:
The Hot Air Balloon through the properties of its components (e.g. the volume of the balloon providing buoyancy through the air it displaces; and the envelope, basket and its contents providing weight) experiences an interaction between the Buoyancy and Weight. [This puts the focus on the Principle.] When Weight is greater than Buoyancy the Balloon falls, when Weight is less the Balloon rises, and when equal the Balloon floats. To decrease the Weight the burner heats the air which expands and leaves the balloon: to increase the Weight the vent is opened, hot air leaves the balloon and cooler/denser air enters from the open base of the Balloon. [This puts the focus on the Process.] By use of the burner and the vent, the pilot can control the altitude of the Balloon.
A short exposition taken from a document on Knowledge Management provides a second example (see Figure 8).
In the first stage of Text Charting, the key concepts and predicate elements are underlined or noted and the thematic and functional content of the paragraph episodes can be given as a summary comment. For example, the first paragraph [A] makes introductory distinctions between the terms ‘data’ ‘information’ and ‘knowledge’ as they are used in the text. Paragraph [B] distinguishes between internal (tacit) knowledge and external (tangible) knowledge as assets in the knowledge management of an organisation. Paragraph [C] moves towards documenting interactive tacit knowledge so that it can become a tangible asset within a data depository. Paragraph [D] considers how such knowledge is to be organised within the structure of the organisation, and the final paragraph [E] develops procedures for reusing and retaining knowledge within the system.
Identifying the predicate types and their relations using the rhetorical vocabulary provides the ingredients for the conceptual mapping. It is usual to follow the chosen paragraph episodes in linking the predicates, and noting or indicating also the linkages between the paragraphs themselves. Typically, and in these ways, a preliminary mapping is produced. On reflection, this can be refined and better organised visually to identify the main themes of the material and to clarify the navigation of the map.
A conceptual mapping of the Knowledge Management article is shown (see Figure 9). There are several comments to be made.
The first paragraph [A] was not included in the map, as the distinctions that were made and are to be kept in mind could be placed in note form as a vocabulary node. The organisation and its management of knowledge assets are the main foci and head the mapping. The left and right portions of the map are concerned with the varying properties of tacit and tangible knowledge, resulting in a stored data repository when and where tacit knowledge is given a tangible form. The left part of the map continues with the process of how tacit knowledge requires interaction mechanisms to give it a tangible form suitable for the organization, so that experts and users can communicate.
The right hand portion of the map concerns structured and unstructured knowledge assets and again these require an organisation (so they can be stored and searched) which matches the administrative patterns of the enterprise. Some Click-on Notes are placed in boxes to indicate particular pointers that help the navigation. Since conceptual maps take into account the previous knowledge and the learning intentions of readers they can vary in the level of detail and the notes which are added. However the broad thematic structure of maps on the same content should be similar, and differences should focus discussion.
Not every statement in the presented text warrants a rhetorical predicate representation, and not every rhetorical predicate identified in the text will necessarily appear in the conceptual map. For example, some statements are incidental notes or illustrations; others are well known to the student and/or can be easily inferred or subsumed within larger span predicates. The student/user will make such value judgements in line with learning objectives. Also, thought should be given to the visual structure of the map so that differing stages and functions (e.g. descriptions and processes), and map navigations are clear.
A text summary navigation of the map can be useful. For example:
Organisations have Knowledge Assets that are Tacit (in the heads/experience of employees), or are Tangible (e.g. external documents) which can be placed in an Information/Database. To make use of Tacit Knowledge it should be given a Tangible form, for example, through interactions (synchronous and asynchronous) between employees and knowledge experts. Then this new information can be stored in the Data Base. But for this to be searched (e.g. by keyword metadata) and used by employees, it must be structured in ways that suit the needs of the organisation. Such interactions should accommodate both synchronous and asynchronous interchanges.
Justifying viewpoints
The application of Rhetorical Analysis is also useful in texts which argue to a principle or seek to establish a viewpoint. These propositions are likely to focus on claims which are justified by data, backing warrants and supports, but also have to take account of counter claims and the evidence they reveal. Toulmin’s work on reasoning has been influential (Toulmin [1958]) and a functional predicate analysis can represent such viewpoints and argument structures. The predicate labels are set at a higher level of generality than the words of the text to show connectivity and intentions.
A small example taken from the Daily Telegraph newspaper January 2014, lefanu@telegraph.co.uk, shows conceptual mapping applied to a viewpoint of the early detection and treatment of prostate cancer patients where differential benefits can be equivocal, and where backing data/warrants and qualifications have to be considered in coming to a judgement.
Prostate cancer diagnosis and treatment
It has taken the experts the best part of 25 years to decide that the benefits of the prostate specific antigen (PSA) blood test for those with a “low-risk” prostate cancer are so equivocal, the consequences of treatment so adverse, that patients are much better advised to “wait and see” rather than consent to an operation.
To be sure, the logic behind the test treatment seemed, initially, unassailable, since it can detect the presence of cancer cells in the prostate gland ten years or more before they become apparent—allowing time to extirpate them before they can cause any mischief. This does, by definition prevent the cancer from spreading, but the overall impact on the disease has proved to be much less than predicted, as emerged when researchers anticipating that men from Seattle would benefit from a fivefold higher rate of testing than in Connecticut found the mortality rate to be identical in the two states. This would matter less were the gland not located in the worst possible place for its successful removal—within millimetres of the bladder and rectum and in proximity to the nerves that control their function. Hence despite the best efforts of the most accomplished surgeons, the majority of patients are still, a year after surgery, impotent and having to wear adult diapers. This is an inordinately high price to pay, physically and emotionally, for those patients with “low-risk” cancers who (as a study last year revealed) left untreated have a 97 percent chance of being alive 12 years later. The advocates of screening inevitably dispute these figures, but as the developer of the PSA test, Prof. Thomas Stamey of Stanford University, subsequently observed, “Never in the history of medicine has one disease been so over-treated”.
A text summary of the mapping (shown in Figure 10) might be:
The PSA blood test for the early diagnosis of prostate cancer can detect tumour cells ten years before they become apparent, but the operation to remove them is technically difficult (due to the close location of the bladder, rectum and controlling nerves). Consequently patients can experience serious effects a year afterwards. Moreover differential testing rates (High/Low, Seattle/Connecticut) showed no difference in mortality rates, and untreated “low-risk” patients had a 97 percent chance of being alive 12 years later. The advice is that “low-risk” patients should “wait and see”.
However, within three months, evidence from a Cambridge University study qualified the “wait and see” advice. These data showed that some 50% who had been diagnosed having slow-growing cancers had more dangerous tumours, and that the biopsies had not detected that the cancer had spread beyond the prostate. These predicates could attach as qualifiers/counters to the conclusion node.